Boolean

Booleans in Python represent binary values of either True or False. They are used for conditional statements, and can be the result of comparison operations or logical operations. For example:

    print(5 == 5) # True

    print(5 > 3) # True

    print(not False) # True

  

Complex

Complex numbers in Python are numbers with real and imaginary components, represented as x + yj. x represents the real part and y represents the imaginary part. For example:

    x = 3 + 4j

    print(x.real) # 3.0

    print(x.imag) # 4.0

  

Bytes

Bytes in Python are sequences of bytes, similar to strings. However, unlike strings, bytes are immutable and are used to store binary data, such as the contents of an image or audio file. Bytes are created using the b prefix before a string, and can be decoded into a string using the decode method. For example:

    x = b'hello'

    print(x) # b'hello'

    print(x.decode()) # 'hello'

  

Bytes Arrays

Bytes arrays in Python are similar to lists, but can only contain elements of type byte. They are mutable and can be used to store binary data, just like bytes. Bytes arrays are created using the bytearray function and can be converted to a bytes object using the bytes function. For example:

    x = bytearray(b'hello')

    print(x) # bytearray(b'hello')

    print(bytes(x)) # b'hello'

  

Range

The range type in Python represents a range of numbers and is commonly used in for loops. A range is created using the range function, which takes a start, stop, and step argument. The start argument is the first number in the range, the stop argument is the first number that is not in the range, and the step argument is the difference between each number in the range. For example:

    for i in range(5):

      print(i)

    # Output:

    # 0

    # 1

    # 2

    # 3

    # 4

  

Function, Classes, Instances, and the Null Object (None)

Functions

In Python, a function is a block of code that performs a specific task and can be reused throughout your code. Functions help break down your code into smaller, manageable parts, making it easier to write and understand. Functions also make it easier to debug and test your code, as you can test each function individually.

Functions are defined using the

def

keyword and can accept arguments, which are inputs to the function. The function can then process the arguments and return a value. For example, the following code defines a function that takes two numbers as arguments and returns their sum:

def add_numbers(a, b):
    return a + b
  

You can then call this function in your code and pass in values for the arguments:

result = add_numbers(5, 7)
print(result) # outputs 12
  

Classes

In Python, a class is a blueprint for creating objects. Classes define the attributes and behavior of objects, and objects are instances of a class. Classes are used to represent real-world objects and can contain data, such as the name and age of a person, and methods, which are functions that belong to the class and can operate on the data.

Here's an example of a class that represents a person:

class Person:
    def __init__(self, name, age):
        self.name = name
        self.age = age
        
    def say_hello(self):
        print("Hello, my name is", self.name)
  

The

__init__

method is a special method that is called when an instance of the class is created. It is used to initialize the attributes of the class. In this example, the

__init__

method takes two arguments,

name

and

age

, and sets them as the values for the

name

and

age

attributes of the class.

You can create an instance of the class by calling the class as if it were a function:

person = Person("John", 32)
person.say_hello() # outputs "Hello, my name is John"
  

Instances

In Python, every object is an instance of a class. An instance is a specific occurrence of an object, with its own set of properties and methods. When you create an object, you are creating an instance of a class. For example, you can create an instance of the "list" class to represent a specific list in your code.

Each instance can have its own unique data and behavior, while still inheriting the properties and methods of its class. This allows you to create multiple instances of the same class, each with its own set of data and behavior.

null object (None)

None is a special constant in Python that represents the absence of a value or a null value. It is equivalent to null in other programming languages. None is commonly used as a placeholder value, for example, as the default value for a function's return or for a variable that has not yet been assigned a value.

You can use the "is" operator to test if an object is equal to None, for example:

    x = None

    if x is None:

      print("x is None")

  

Remember, None is not the same as an empty string, an empty list, or any other empty data structure in Python. It represents the absence of a value specifically.